Economic Letter

Thanks in large part to recently enacted tax cuts, U.S. fiscal policy has taken a decidedly procyclical turn—providing stimulus when the economy is growing. In fact, the projected increase in the federal deficit over the next few years would represent the most procyclical fiscal policy stance since the Vietnam War. This matters because many recent studies have found that fiscal stimulus has a smaller impact when the economy is strong, implying that the near-term boost to GDP growth could be two-thirds or less of that from previous tax cuts.

Many investors have turned to emerging market bonds seeking higher returns in the current low interest rate environment. This raises a natural question about the potential for financial instability if investors choose to sell off those bonds quickly. Studying how changes in foreign holdings of Mexican government bonds known as bonos affected their liquidity premiums provides an assessment of the risks and benefits from foreign investment in an emerging economy. Results show that the larger foreign market share of Mexican sovereign bonds tends to increase their liquidity risk premium.

Since late 2015, growth in real GDP has consistently exceeded that in real GDI, a prominent alternative measure of aggregate output, with an average difference of about 0.65 percentage point. Is real GDP overstating the expansion? One way to address this question is by comparing the accuracy of these measures in forecasting a benchmark measure of economic activity, the Chicago Fed National Activity Index. The comparison suggests that GDP consistently outperforms GDI in predicting recent real economic activity. Therefore, the weaker GDI growth does not necessarily indicate slower economic growth.

In the current economic environment, it’s important to distinguish between the strong economic conditions and the key longer-run drivers underpinning interest rates. Three factors—demographics, productivity growth, and the demand for safe assets—all point to the natural rate of interest, known as r-star, remaining low for quite some time. The following is adapted from a speech by the president and CEO of the Federal Reserve Bank of San Francisco to the Economic Club of Minnesota in Minneapolis on May 15.

From Bitcoin’s inception in 2009 through mid-2017, its price remained under $4,000. In the second half of 2017, it climbed dramatically to nearly $20,000, but descended rapidly starting in mid-December. The peak price coincided with the introduction of bitcoin futures trading on the Chicago Mercantile Exchange. The rapid run-up and subsequent fall in the price after the introduction of futures does not appear to be a coincidence. Rather, it is consistent with trading behavior that typically accompanies the introduction of futures markets for an asset.

What is the effect of government spending on private consumption? Estimates show that stimulus distributed through the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act had a large positive effect. Estimates from regional data suggest every $100 of stimulus generated an additional $18 within regions. Furthermore, by accounting for economic connections that spread the impact beyond regional borders, a new study finds that every $100 triggered an increase of $40 in overall private consumption in the economy.

The U.S. economy is on course to be as strong as in many decades, and inflation is moving closer to the Federal Reserve’s target. The challenge for monetary policy is to keep it that way. While this is never an easy task, the Fed is well positioned to achieve its goals and respond to unexpected developments. The following is adapted from a speech by the president and CEO of the Federal Reserve Bank of San Francisco to the World Affairs Council of Sonoma in Santa Rosa, CA, on April 6.